Wellness Conventionalities Model

The Health Belief Model (HBM) was i of the first models that adjusted theory from the behavioral sciences to health problems, and information technology remains ane of the most widely recognized conceptual frameworks of wellness beliefs.

From: Travel Medicine (Second Edition) , 2008

Wellness Beliefs

Mark Conner , Paul Norman , in Reference Module in Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Psychology, 2021

Commentary

The HBM has provided a useful framework for investigating wellness behaviors and identifying key health beliefs, has been widely used, and has met with moderate success in predicting and irresolute a range of health behaviors (for a detailed review see Sheeran and Abraham, 2003). However, nearly tests of HBM accept employed cantankerous-sectional correlational designs. At that place is a clear demand for more experimental studies to test the causal affect of manipulating HBM cognitions on behavior (see Sheeran et al., 2014). There is also a need for more tests of HBM-based interventions that include mediation analyses to examine whether whatsoever furnishings on behavior are mediated by changes in HBM cognitions.

The key strength of the HBM lies in the fact that it was adult by researchers directly working with health behaviors and so many of the concepts possess face-validity to those working in this expanse. This common-sense operationalization of a number of cognitive variables relevant to the operation of health behavior partly accounts for the model's popularity. However, compared to other similar social cognitive models of health behaviors, the HBM suffers from a number of weaknesses. The way in which the variables in the HBM combine to produce beliefs has not been precisely specified (just see Becker and Rosenstock, 1987) and, every bit a effect, the HBM is often tested as vi independent predictors of behavior (Fig. 1). In addition, various researchers take used somewhat different operationalizations of the half dozen constructs (run into Rosenstock, 1974; Becker and Maiman, 1983). Together these factors have weakened the condition of the HBM equally a coherent SCM of health behavior (Abraham and Sheeran, 2015). Moreover, fundamental social cerebral variables, establish to be highly predictive of behavior in other models, are non incorporated in the HBM. For instance, social pressure is a central component of the Theory of Planned Behavior/Reasoned Action Approach which does non appear in the HBM. In addition, self-efficacy beliefs which have been institute to be powerful predictors of behavior in models based upon Social Cognitive Theory (Bandura, 1986) are non explicitly included in the HBM, although Rosenstock et al. (1988) proposed that self-efficacy should be added to the model. Studies that have tested the predictive utility of an extended HBM, including cocky-efficacy, take more often than not found that it is a useful additional predictor (e.g., Norman and Brain, 2005). Possibly most importantly, the HBM does non include a measure of intention as specified in other SCMs such as the Theory of Planned Beliefs and Protection Motivation Theory. A measure of intention would exist expected to mediate the effects of HBM cognitions on beliefs. In not specifying a causal ordering among the variables, as is done in other models, more powerful analyses of information and clearer indications of how interventions may have their effects are precluded in the HBM. Several authors have noted, for example, that threat is perhaps best seen as a more distal predictor of beliefs acting via influences upon outcome expectancies. Finally, the model is static; there is no distinction between a motivational stage dominated by cerebral variables and a volitional stage where action is planned, performed and maintained (Schwarzer, 1992). Such distinctions are thought to exist important in understanding various wellness behaviors. Hence, while an extremely pop SCM, information technology is as well limited in a number of ways and for this reason may receive relatively less attention in the hereafter.

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Current Research on Sexual Health and Teenagers

Kerry Mckellar BSC, MRES, PHD , Elizabeth Sillence BSC (HONS), MSC, PHD , in Teenagers, Sexual Health Information and the Digital Historic period, 2020

Wellness belief model

The Wellness Conventionalities Model (HBM) is another extensively researched model of wellness behavior (Hochbaum & Rosenstock, 1952). The HBM attempts to predict health-related beliefs in terms of sure belief patterns. A person's motivation to undertake a health behavior can be divided into three categories: individual perceptions, modifying factors, and likelihood of action. Individual perceptions are factors that touch on the perception of illness and with the importance of health to the individual, perceived susceptibility, and perceived severity. Modifying factors include demographic variables, perceived threat, and cues to action. The likelihood of activity is the perceived benefits minus the perceived barriers of taking the recommended wellness action. The combination of these factors causes a response that often manifests into the likelihood of that behavior occurring (Janz & Becker, 1984; Rosenstock & Strecher, 1988).

The HBM proposes that the perception of a personal health behavior threat is influenced past at least iii factors, full general wellness values, which include involvement and concern about health; specific wellness behavior almost vulnerability to a item wellness threat; and beliefs about the consequences of the health problem (Hochbaum & Rosenstock, 1952). If a person perceives a threat to their wellness, is consecutively cued to action, and their perceived benefits outweigh the perceived barriers, so they are likely to undertake the recommended preventive health action. A schematic representation of the model is shown in Fig. ii.two.

Fig. 2.2. A schematic representation of the Wellness Belief Model.

The HBM has been used to help understanding in sexual gamble-taking behavior among diverse age (Dark-brown, DiClemente, & Reynolds, 1991) and cultural groups (Lin, Simoni, & Zemon, 2005). Numerous studies have examined the capacity of the HBM to predict whether sexually agile adolescents and young adults will apply protection against STIs during sexual or oral intercourse and found support for HBM in understanding safe sex activity behaviors (Brown et al., 1991; Laraque, Mclean, & Chocolate-brown-Peterside, 1997; Lin et al., 2005). HBM has been found to business relationship for 43% of the variance in prophylactic sex intentions in young adolescents (Petosa & Jackson,1991). Furthermore, Downing-Matibag and Geisinger (2012) demonstrated that the HBM tin serve equally a useful framework for understanding sexual risk-taking during coincidental hookups, as adolescents' assessments of their own and peers' susceptibility to STIs are ofttimes misinformed and situational characteristics, such as spontaneity, undermine adolescents' sexual self-efficacy.

However, there are issues with using the HBM and meta-analyses have plant mixed results of its effectiveness (Carpenter, 2010; Taylor, 2006). In a Uk review of enquiry utilizing HBM there was no evidence that HBM-based interventions have contributed positively to overall improved wellness outcomes in the U.k. (Taylor, 2006). Furthermore, a meta-analysis of xviii studies plant perceived barriers and perceived benefits to be the strongest predictors of behavior, but perceived severity was weak (Carpenter, 2010). Carpenter (2010) suggested that hereafter research should examine possible mediation and moderation between the core components of the HBM, than to explore direct furnishings. However, another meta-analysis of 18 studies investigated interventions based on the HBM to improve health adherence, with 83% of these studies reporting improved adherence and 39% of studies showing moderate to large effect sizes. Yet only vi of the studies included explored the model in its entirety (Jones, Smith, & Llewellyn, 2014). Health adherence to teenagers attending routine STI screenings and taking oral contraception pills has been reported as an issue, and every bit discussed above, the HBM can assist in understanding adolescents' safe sexual practice intentions (Goyal, Witt, Gerber, Hayes, & Zaoutis, 2013). Therefore, despite the criticisms discussed here, in that location is show that the HBM tin can help in understanding sexual risk-taking beliefs in teenagers.

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Social Media and Health Beliefs Change

50. Laranjo , in Participatory Health Through Social Media, 2016

6.3.2 Health Belief Model

The Wellness Belief Model proposes that people are most likely to take preventative activity if they perceive the threat of a health adventure to be serious, if they feel they are personally susceptible and if in that location are fewer costs than benefits to engaging in information technology [14]. Therefore, a central attribute of the Health Conventionalities Model is that behavior change interventions are more than effective if they accost an individual's specific perceptions near susceptibility, benefits, barriers, and self-efficacy [5]. Interventions focusing on this model may involve chance calculation and prediction, equally well as personalized advice and education.

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Current Theoretical Bases for Nutrition Intervention and Their Uses

KAREN GLANZ , in Nutrition in the Prevention and Treatment of Disease, 2001

D. Health Belief Model

The health conventionalities model was one of the commencement models to adapt theory from the behavioral sciences to wellness problems, and it remains one of the most widely recognized conceptual frameworks of health behavior. It emerged in the 1950s, during a fourth dimension in history when a modest number of preventive wellness services were available, such as flu vaccines and breast X rays for tuberculosis screening [ 38]. The model was based on an assumption that people fear diseases, and that health actions are motivated in relation to the degree of fear (perceived threat) and expected fear-reduction potential of deportment, as long as that potential outweighs applied and psychological obstacles to taking action (cyberspace benefits) [14].

The 4 central constructs of the health belief model are identified as perceived susceptibility and perceived severity (two dimensions of "threat"), and perceived benefits and perceived barriers (the components of "net benefits"). More recent adaptations have added the concepts "cue to action," a stimulus to undertake behavior; and self-efficacy, or confidence in one's ability to perform an action [39]. While the health belief model was originally conceived as an explanatory model, information technology has some applications for planning change, likewise. The most promising utilise of the wellness belief model in designing interventions is every bit a foundation for developing letters that may persuade individuals to brand good for you decisions.

To what extent does the health belief model fit well with nutrition intervention? Does it assistance us sympathize how people view their eating habits and can information technology motivate them to make salubrious changes? In fact, the wellness belief model is of limited apply for primary prevention of chronic diseases such as cardiovascular disease and cancer. However, it tin play an important office in interventions for persons with clinical nutrition-related adventure factors, such equally high blood cholesterol or diabetes. Such individuals are faced with the important and often overriding concern about health. For practitioners, health concerns—emphasized by applying the wellness belief model—are virtually probable to exist influential when they are emphasized in a articulate and specific mode, placed in the context of overall run a risk for diseases, and when dietary alter recommendations can be linked prospectively to tangible risk reduction [15]. Symptomatic patients besides tend to be more than motivated [40].

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Teaching Patients to Manage Their Asthma

David Evans , in Clinical Asthma, 2008

BEHAVIOR Alter THEORIES AND STRATEGIES FOR Modify

Two theories of behavior change, the wellness belief model and social cognitive theory, have been widely used to develop strategies to help patients acquire to adopt healthy behaviors and to work with their clinicians to meliorate their health. These theories are summarized below, and specific questions and teaching strategies clinicians can employ are presented.

The Health Belief Model (HBM) was developed in the 1950s to explain why people did or did not accept part in programs to detect or prevent disease, such as x-ray screenings to observe tuberculosis. half dozen The model was later applied to how people responded to illnesses that had been diagnosed, including adherence to medical regimens. Since then, the HBM has been used widely in studies of health behavior. The HBM proposes that preventive or therapeutic recommendations by the clinician are more than likely to be followed if the patient feels that:

•

I am susceptible to this disease.

•

I believe that the illness is serious.

•

I believe that the benefits of the recommended treatment will outweigh the costs or barriers involved in following it.

•

I am confident that I can carry out the recommended handling successfully.

In add-on, HBM suggests that patients are more likely to follow recommendations if they are exposed to cues to action, such equally written or telephone reminders, or public announcements such every bit posters and public service advertisements on radio.

The HBM provides a useful framework for guiding clinicians' thinking well-nigh how to teach their patients and persuade them to follow the handling programme. A good way to brainstorm, one time the initial history or complaint has been discussed, is to ask iv basic open-ended questions:

1.

What concerns you most near your asthma?

2.

What do you know virtually asthma?

3.

What concerns do you take about the medicines?

4.

What would yous like to do that you can't do at present because of your asthma?

These questions invite patients to talk about their feelings, just focus the upshot on what matters to them about asthma. The answers will often provide clues the clinician can follow up on to assess specific areas of the HBM. For example, it is often non clear how susceptible patients feel about dissimilar aspects of asthma or asthma diagnosis. A clinician may not be sure whether the family believes the patient has asthma at all. Other families may readily accept the notion that the patient has asthma, only not believe that it is a chronic problem that exists fifty-fifty when symptoms are non present. Some patients may agree they have asthma, but not believe they are susceptible to having serious asthma exacerbations. These problems can be explored with follow-up questions directed at the consequence of susceptibility. For example, "How probable is it that your kid will have another asthma set on similar this i?" or "Do you think y'all will go along to accept asthma symptoms in the next year?" or "How do you lot experience about the thought that your child has asthma?" Similarly, the patient or family's perception of the seriousness of asthma tin can be explored with questions such as "How serious exercise y'all think your asthma is?" or "What exercise y'all recollect will happen if your child's asthma is not treated?" The answers to these questions are likely to bring out the patient'southward feelings about susceptibility and seriousness, and the clinician can so engage in a discussion with the patient and provide accurate data.

The four basic questions listed higher up are also probable to provide data about the patient'due south perception of the potential benefits of following the clinician'southward recommended treatment, equally well as perceived barriers to doing so. If the recommended handling is new, the patient is not likely to accept given much thought to the potential benefits of following it. The clinician may exist able to use the patients' answers to questions virtually concerns to help patients link the problems they want solved to what the clinician teaches them nearly the benefits of therapy. For case, "What benefits practice you think yous might go if y'all took the inhaled corticosteroid every day?" If the patient is not sure, the clinician tin can then tie the potential benefits to the patient'due south expressed concerns: "Earlier you said y'all were bothered past non beingness able to sleep through the nighttime. The inhaled corticosteroid that I'd similar to prescribe for you will assist y'all to do that. Information technology will likewise enable y'all to be physically active without wheezing or cough. What exercise you lot think nigh that?" A skilful follow-up question is "Can you think of any other ways this treatment might aid your asthma or your power to do the things you want?" Questions like this will help patients make more connections between the therapy proposed and the benefits they desire. With both children and adults, tying the use of the treatment to achieving goals the patients want over a brusk period of fourth dimension can help patients perceive the benefits of therapy, motivate them to follow it, and provide them with criteria for recognizing that the treatment is working.

Identifying perceived barriers to post-obit a recommended treatment may be more straightforward, and is one of the goals of the well-known strategy of tailoring the regimen to the patient. Clinicians should discuss specific plans for taking a new medicine at dwelling with the patient, and ask, "What issues practice you think you will take in carrying this out the way we have discussed?" A good follow-up question that goes beyond details of administration is "Are there any other bug or concerns you take about following this plan?" Patient beliefs that the medicines may be harmful should be followed with more specific questions, such every bit "What harm do you think the medicine may cause?" or "What led you to think that this might be a problem?"

Finally, patient or family confidence that the handling programme tin exist followed and used to command asthma should be assessed with questions such as "How sure are y'all that you tin can give the medicine to your child with the inhaler and spacer?" or "How sure are you that you can command your asthma using the written treatment plan I've given you?" If patients are not sure, then follow upwardly with open-ended probes such as "I can sense you aren't completely sure. What function are y'all not so certain of?" This approach volition enable patients to bring upwardly all the relevant bug before they go out the office.

Past using the HBM every bit a framework for asking questions to appraise patients' asthma knowledge, beliefs, and skills, the clinician can identify key issues that need to be addressed to make patients able and willing to follow the treatment plan. The strength of HBM is that information technology helps identify areas in which discussion and teaching are needed to alter patient behavior. Its limitation, however, is that it doesn't tell u.s.a. much about how behavior change occurs or how the clinician tin can facilitate change. For that, we plough to cognitive social theory and the self-regulation procedure.

Social cerebral theory (SCT) describes the process past which people set and reach goals through a procedure known as self-regulation. 7,8 Most people cocky-regulate their behavior to some extent, and tin larn, either spontaneously or with coaching, to

•

Control problem behaviors, such as smoking;

•

Principal valued skills, such as playing a musical instrument;

•

Achieve goals, such every bit completing a medical residency.

In self-regulation, the individual attempts to reach desired outcomes by a process that includes controlling three factors: (1) behaviors, such as trying out new strategies and self-observation of the results; (2) personal thoughts, such as reactions to the success of one's own behavior, or setting new goals; and (iii) environmental factors. Environmental factors include both physical factors, such every bit the presence or lack of needed equipment or infinite, and social factors, such as the presence of a instructor or motorbus to assist acquire noesis or skills. Self-regulation is the process by which an individual attempts to command the interaction of these three factors to attain a goal. For example, a student learning to play an instrument may: (1) decide to primary a simple piece of music (personal—goal setting); (2) to play the music repeatedly until he or she can do it without mistakes (behavioral—trying a strategy); and (3) finding a identify to practice where he or she won't be disturbed by others (environmental).

Coaching past an expert is an important aid in learning to self-regulate behavior. For case, the educatee might have a teacher who could demonstrate how the music should audio when played correctly, provide feedback about how well the pupil was playing, and suggest new strategies to help the student play better. Similarly, consider a patient with asthma who has experienced difficulty in decision-making flare-ups with a beta-agonist delivered by metered-dose inhaler (MDI). His doctor has suggested that he may not exist using the MDI correctly and then is not getting the needed dose of medicine. The patient might (1) decide that he would master MDI technique (personal—goal setting); (2) enquire the doctor to demonstrate the correct technique, then practice doing what the doctor did, while reviewing a list to make sure he was following all the steps (behavioral—trying a strategy and cocky-monitoring the results); and (iii) ask the doctor to watch him practice and provide feedback about how he was doing (environmental—use of a coach to assist in self-monitoring and interpreting the results).

Self-regulation is a circadian process that typically is repeated until a problem is solved or controlled or a skill mastered. The bicycle includes (1) deciding to try a specific strategy to reach a goal; (2) initiating the action and self-monitoring to see how it works; (three) making a judgment of success or failure; (4) experiencing an increase or decrease in self-efficacy–cocky-confidence that the action can be performed successfully and helps achieve the overall goal; and (4) repeating the wheel by modifying the strategy to correct actions that didn't work or to ameliorate on those that did. To dilate the instance above, the patient who had just learned proper technique for using a metered dose inhaler from his medico might (1) decide to try the new technique for the next 2 weeks, while (2) keeping a diary of symptom-free days to see whether his asthma control was improving; (3) review the diary at the end of ii weeks to decide whether his command had improved; and (iv) depending on the result, feel an increase in self-efficacy that he could control his asthma by using the new technique, or perchance feel a reduction in self-efficacy if the symptom diary didn't prove a positive change.

This example highlights the importance of ii critical aspects in the self-regulation cycle. The first is that increased self-efficacy is critical to encourage repeated efforts to meliorate. 7,viii Research shows that as self-efficacy increases, people are more than likely to repeat an activeness, and are more likely to persist in the face of difficulty. For instance, equally a kid makes initial progress in learning a musical instrument and gains conviction that she can play well, she often begins to play the instrument much more frequently, and is willing to tackle more complicated pieces of music. Improvement in self-efficacy is not guaranteed, however, and reduced self-efficacy can bring the cycle to a halt.

The office of coaching is of import to assistance the learner gain confidence and repeat the self-regulation process. Coaches tin can practise this in several ways. First, the bus can help the learner pick goals that can exist achieved over a curt period of fourth dimension, to increase the chances of success. Most weight-loss programs, for case, set a goal of losing i to 2 pounds per calendar week—a goal that can be readily achieved and builds confidence that the nutrition is working. 2nd, the coach can teach the learner how to cocky-observe, and tin can provide straight feedback about success. 3rd, the motorcoach tin can assist learners reach appropriate judgments about success. Many people find it difficult initially to tell if they are doing well, and counseling and problem solving can assistance their confidence grow every bit they learn.

In that location are three ways in which self-efficacy tin be increased, and clinicians tin can make utilise of all of these with patients learning to control asthma. The first is verbal persuasion; that is, telling the patient that he or she is capable of learning the skills needed to control asthma. This is the to the lowest degree constructive method, but because these methods are additive in upshot, information technology is a skilful identify to start. The 2nd way is vicarious experience, which occurs when the patient talks with or observes another patient who has mastered the same skill. This is more effective because the other patient is a more conceivable model. For a patient, seeing that another patient has learned to use a metered dose inhaler with a spacer leads to the thought "If she can do it, I can practice it too," which is more convincing than the word of the doctor, because the patient is likely to recall that "This doctor has had years of training; of form he thinks it is easy." The most effective manner in which self-efficacy can exist increased, even so, is by direct practice with feedback that leads to a serial of short-term successes as the skill increases. All three approaches should be used when possible. Verbal persuasion can be done to initiate the procedure. Nearly clinicians can also allude to the fact that they have other patients who take mastered the skill, which is providing vicarious experience secondhand. In grouping asthma education programs, the health educator may be able to have parents who accept learned a skill demonstrate it to others to have total advantage of vicarious experience. Finally, past following a model of teaching the skill based on self-regulation theory, most clinicians, lonely or with the help of practice staff, tin successfully lead the patient to learn the skill with demonstration plus practise with feedback under the guidance of a bus. This model is outlined in Box 25-1.

Repeating the main pedagogy steps as outlined in stride seven is important for two reasons. Kickoff, information technology takes more time than nosotros usually imagine to fully found a skill and to work out all the bug in using it. 2nd, many skills decay over time and need reinforcement. Asking patients to self-monitor for a brief time until they learn key skills is important, because self-monitoring increases the desire to amend functioning. By using this teaching process, clinicians can stimulate patients to gear up goals and start the self-regulation process, thus helping patients improve their control of asthma.

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Tanning

J.K. Thompson , ... S. Chait , in Encyclopedia of Trunk Image and Human Appearance, 2012

Health belief model

The Wellness Belief Model (HBM) is a widely used cerebral model of wellness behavior that was adult in the 1950s to explicate the lack of participation in Public Health Service programs, responses to experienced symptoms, and medical compliance. At the about bones level, the HBM is a value-expectancy theory: beliefs is dependent on (one) the subjective value placed on the outcome and (2) the expectation that an activeness will lead to that issue. In the context of health-related behaviors, the valued outcome is typically the comeback of health or abstention of poor wellness; the expectation is the private's belief that a health action tin can increase the likelihood of the event. Whether an individual chooses to engage in health-related behaviors is farther dependent on his/her perceptions of (i) susceptibility to the health threat, (2) severity of the health threat, (3) likelihood of reducing the threat by engaging in the behavior, and (4) costs associated with engaging in the behavior.

Applied to tanning, the HBM suggests that individuals will engage in lord's day protection (e.one thousand., habiliment sunscreen) if they perceive themselves to be vulnerable (due to family cancer history and skin type) to a severe health threat (pare cancer), and believe that the benefits associated with engaging in the protective behavior (diminishing risk for skin cancer) outweigh the costs (money spent on sunscreen). The utility of a psychosocial model, including components of the HBM, in explaining sun protection amongst immature non-Hispanic Caucasian women has been tested longitudinally. Results indicated that the human relationship between objective run a risk and intentions to sun protect and sunbathe was fully mediated by perceived susceptibility to skin cancer and photoaging. Namely, participants at greater objective run a risk reported college perceived susceptibility, which was associated with increased intentions to dominicus protect and decreased intentions to sunbathe. Perceived severity was not related to actual beliefs 1-week prior to follow-up.

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Mental Health and Physical Health (Including HIV/AIDS)

Ashraf Kagee , Melvyn Freeman , in International Encyclopedia of Public Health (Second Edition), 2017

Health Conventionalities Model

The Wellness Belief Model (HBM) hypothesizes that health-related beliefs depends on the combination of several factors, namely, perceived susceptibility, perceived severity, perceived benefits, perceived barriers, cues to activity, and self-efficacy. Perceived susceptibility refers to an private's opinion of the chances of contracting the affliction condition. Perceived severity refers to an private'south opinion of how serious a condition and its consequences are. Perceived benefits refer to 1's conventionalities in the efficacy of the recommended health beliefs in reducing the chance or seriousness of the condition. Perceived barriers refer to the perception of cost associated with adhering to a recommended health beliefs if it is likely to exist beneficial in reducing or eliminating the perceived threat. Self-efficacy refers to the level of confidence in one'southward ability to perform the health behavior in question. Those persons who have low self-efficacy will have depression confidence in their ability, which will accept an result on the likelihood of the behavior being performed. The HBM has been applied with considerable success to a range of wellness behaviors and populations, particularly preventive behaviors, such as nutrition, do, smoking cessation, vaccination, and contraception and sick part behaviors such equally adherence to recommended medical treatments.

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Nutrition Intervention: Lessons from Clinical Trials

LINDA G. SNETSELAAR , in Nutrition in the Prevention and Treatment of Disease, 2001

C. Health Conventionalities Model

The health belief model is a psychological model that attempts to explain and predict health behaviors past focusing on the attitudes and beliefs of individuals. The key variables of the wellness conventionalities model are as follows [ 4]:

i.

Caste of perceived hazard of a disease. This variable includes perceived susceptibility of contracting a health condition and its perceived severity in one case contracted.

2.

Perceived benefits of diet adherence. A 2d benefit is the believed effectiveness of dietary strategies designed to help reduce the threat of disease.

three.

Perceived barriers to diet adherence. This variable includes potential negative consequences that may result from taking item health actions, including concrete (weight gain or loss), psychological (lack of spontaneity in food selection) and financial demands (cost of new foods).

4.

Cues to activity. Events that motivate people to take activeness in changing their dietary habits are crucial determinants of change.

v.

Self-efficacy. A very important variable is the conventionalities in beingness able to successfully execute the dietary behavior required to produce the desired outcomes [5, vi, 7].

6.

Other variables. Demographic, sociopsychological, and structural variables affect an individual'due south perceptions of dietary alter and thus indirectly influence his ability to sustain new eating behaviors.

Motivation for alter depends on the presence of a sufficient degree of perceived risk in combination with sufficient self-efficacy. Perceived risk without self-efficacy tends to result in defensive cognitive coping, such as deprival, rationalization, and project, rather than behavior change. The first element of this change model can hands be converted to a degree of perceived promise (for a positive goal), being the cross-product of perceived probability of obtaining the eventual reward.

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Individual interventions

Matthew J. Mimiaga , ... Steven A. Safren , in HIV Prevention, 2009

The health belief model

The health belief model (HBM) is a value-expectancy theory, and assumes that an individual'southward beliefs is guided by expectations of consequences of adopting new practices (Janz et al., 2002). The model has four primal concepts (Hornik, 1991; Fisher and Fisher, 1992):

one.

Susceptibility: does the person perceive vulnerability to the specific disease?

2.

Severity: does the private perceive that getting the disease has negative consequences?

3.

Benefits minus costs: what are the positive and negative effects of adopting a new practise?

4.

Health motive: does the person have business concern about the consequences of contracting the disease?

In improver, self-efficacy, a sense of competence as a cogent agent of long-term beliefs change, has recently been integrated into HBM. Thus, increased sexual risk-taking or unprotected sex may be explained and addressed by HMB as follows: 1's beliefs about the benefits of condoms (protection from HIV or STDs) do not outweigh the costs of safe utilize (pleasance reduction due to reduced sensation, partner-related concerns such as creation of distrust in a relationship or reduction of spontaneity); interventions would focus on shifting the benefit–cost. A criticism of this model is that it lacks clear definitions of components and the relationship between them; thus the model has been critiqued for inconsistent measurement in both descriptive and intervention research. HBM has been farther critiqued for non fully addressing several behavioral determinants, including socio-cultural factors, and bold that health is a high priority for virtually individuals (thus, it may not be applicable to those who do not place as high a value on health).

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Wellness Behaviors

Grand. Conner , in International Encyclopedia of the Social & Behavioral Sciences, 2001

5.1 Wellness Belief Model

The Health Belief Model (HBM) attempts to conceptualize two types of health beliefs that make a behavior in response to illness more or less attractive (Sheeran and Abraham 1996): perceptions of the threat of illness and evaluation of the effectiveness of behaviors to annul this threat. Threat perceptions depend upon the perceived susceptibility to the disease and the perceived severity of the consequences of the affliction. Together these variables make up one's mind the likelihood of the individual following a health-related action, although their effect is modified by demographic variables, social force per unit area and personality. The particular action undertaken is adamant by the evaluation of the possible alternatives. This behavioral evaluation depends upon beliefs apropos the benefits or efficacy of the health behavior and the perceived costs or barriers to performing the behavior. Hence, individuals are likely to follow a item health beliefs if they believe themselves to exist susceptible to a item condition or illness which they consider to be serious, and believe the benefits of the behavior undertaken to annul the status or disease outweigh the costs. It is assumed that this whole procedure is gear up in motion past cues to action. Cues to action include a diverse range of triggers to the individual taking action and are commonly divided into factors that are internal (e.g., physical symptoms) or external (east.m., mass media campaigns, communication from others) to the individual. Other influences upon the performance of health behaviors, such as demographic factors or psychological characteristics (e.g. personality, peer pressure level, perceived control over behavior) are assumed to exert their result via changes in the components of the HBM.

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